A Bad Rap-
Over the years, video games have received much negative attention
focused around the relationship between violent video games and antisocial
behavior. In 2005, the APA (American Psychological Association) released a
statement that exposure to violent or "action" games was linked with aggressive
behavior. Some scholars are not so sure, and an effort has been made to better
understand this relationship, and to explore whether a relationship might exist
between so-called prosocial games and helpful, prosocial behaviors. Research
has suggested that playing video games with prosocial content leads to an
increase in cognitive associations with prosocial thoughts, which in turn
influence prosocial behavior. To explain the effects of violent video games on aggression, Anderson and Bushman (2002) proposed the General Aggression Model (GAM), which has become the model that researchers generally refer to. The GAM theorizes that the content of violent video games impacts a person's internal states, which impact both how they perceive and interpret events as well as how they respond. Research supports a cognitive route for the GAM, whereby exposure to aggressive content influences the accessibility of aggressive thoughts, which in turn influence aggressive behavior. The GAM was later expanded into the General Learning Model (GLM) to account for the effects of non-violent games as well (Buckley and Anderson, 2006). The GLM theorizes that input variables (personal and situational) effect a person's internal states (affective and arousal) which guide their responses. Most important to the subject of video games, the GLM hypothesizes that the kind of associations formed by playing a video game are determined by the content of the game played.
focused around the relationship between violent video games and antisocial
behavior. In 2005, the APA (American Psychological Association) released a
statement that exposure to violent or "action" games was linked with aggressive
behavior. Some scholars are not so sure, and an effort has been made to better
understand this relationship, and to explore whether a relationship might exist
between so-called prosocial games and helpful, prosocial behaviors. Research
has suggested that playing video games with prosocial content leads to an
increase in cognitive associations with prosocial thoughts, which in turn
influence prosocial behavior. To explain the effects of violent video games on aggression, Anderson and Bushman (2002) proposed the General Aggression Model (GAM), which has become the model that researchers generally refer to. The GAM theorizes that the content of violent video games impacts a person's internal states, which impact both how they perceive and interpret events as well as how they respond. Research supports a cognitive route for the GAM, whereby exposure to aggressive content influences the accessibility of aggressive thoughts, which in turn influence aggressive behavior. The GAM was later expanded into the General Learning Model (GLM) to account for the effects of non-violent games as well (Buckley and Anderson, 2006). The GLM theorizes that input variables (personal and situational) effect a person's internal states (affective and arousal) which guide their responses. Most important to the subject of video games, the GLM hypothesizes that the kind of associations formed by playing a video game are determined by the content of the game played.
Effects on Prosocial Behavior
Greitemeyer and Osswald (2011) hypothesized that, similar to the effects of violent video games on antisocial behavior, prosocial video games would lead to an increase in prosocial behavior. Using four video games (Lemmings, City Crisis, Tetris, and Lamers) for the prosocial, neutral, and aggressive conditions, four experiments were conducted to determine the rate at which participants in the prosocial condition were willing to help.
In their first experiment, participants played a video game and then were asked to complete a questionnaire. As the experimenter handed out the questionnaire, they knocked over some pencils. Of the participants in the prosocial condition, 67% helped the experimenter to pick them up compared to 33% in the neutral condition and 28% in the aggressive condition. A second experiment, to see whether participants would be willing to help with future research, yielded even more impressive results. This time, 100% of the participants in the prosocial condition were willing to help, compared to 68% of participants in the neutral condition!
Worried that exposure to prosocial video games might only affect low-cost, short term behaviors, a third experiment analyzed whether participants would continue to help when the stakes were substantially higher. While playing a game overseen by a female experimenter, a male confederate burst into the room and began to verbally and physically harass the experimenter. The minimum amount of aid acceptable would be for a participant to confront the confederate and ask him to leave the experimenter alone, or to ask the experimenter if she was in trouble or needed help. 56% of the participants in the prosocial condition made an effort to help, as opposed to only 22% of participants in the neutral condition. Had this been an actual confrontation, the difference between over half of people who witnessed it being willing to help, or only a quarter of those who witnessed it being willing to help, could mean the difference between life or death.
While some limitations to this study do exist, such that it only studied short-term effects, the results suggest a strong link between exposure to
prosocial video games and the initiation of prosocial behavior. More than half of the participants in any prosocial condition were willing to help in some way, a much higher percentage than those participants in any neutral condition. At times when the need for help is pronounced, such as when someone is being assaulted by another, the occurrence of prosocial behavior can make all the difference. Studies have suggested that repeated exposure to media might affect long term behavior (Huesmann & Miller, 1994). More research into the long term effects of prosocial video game content on prosocial behavior is needed, but if other studies are any indication the more players are exposed to prosocial content in video games, the more likely they are to respond in a helping manner to those in need.
prosocial video games and the initiation of prosocial behavior. More than half of the participants in any prosocial condition were willing to help in some way, a much higher percentage than those participants in any neutral condition. At times when the need for help is pronounced, such as when someone is being assaulted by another, the occurrence of prosocial behavior can make all the difference. Studies have suggested that repeated exposure to media might affect long term behavior (Huesmann & Miller, 1994). More research into the long term effects of prosocial video game content on prosocial behavior is needed, but if other studies are any indication the more players are exposed to prosocial content in video games, the more likely they are to respond in a helping manner to those in need.
What Would Superman Do?
If the interactive nature of video games makes them even more powerful predictors of prosocial behavior than traditional media, how much more
of an effect would virtual reality (vr) programs have? Studies have shown that individuals forced to cross a virtual chasm, despite knowing that they were within a virtual world, still displayed the same psychological symptoms and stress reactions that they would were they crossing a real chasm. Similarly, people with a fear of flying, when made to experience a virtual flight, experience the same therapeutic benefits as those who actually experience a real flight (Slater, Khannam, Mortenson and Yu, 2009).
Rosenberg, Baughman and Bailenson (2012) conducted an experiment with participants experiencing either the superpowers of flight belonging to
Superman, or a virtual helicopter flight. Participants were also assigned to a helping condition whereby they were either tasked with finding a lost, diabetic child desperately in need of an insulin shot, or allowed the freedom to explore the city. After the vr training was over, the experimenter asked the participants to wait while they put away the vr equipment. Similar to the Greitemeyer experiments, the experimenter proceeded to accidentally knock over some pens while putting the equipment away.
of an effect would virtual reality (vr) programs have? Studies have shown that individuals forced to cross a virtual chasm, despite knowing that they were within a virtual world, still displayed the same psychological symptoms and stress reactions that they would were they crossing a real chasm. Similarly, people with a fear of flying, when made to experience a virtual flight, experience the same therapeutic benefits as those who actually experience a real flight (Slater, Khannam, Mortenson and Yu, 2009).
Rosenberg, Baughman and Bailenson (2012) conducted an experiment with participants experiencing either the superpowers of flight belonging to
Superman, or a virtual helicopter flight. Participants were also assigned to a helping condition whereby they were either tasked with finding a lost, diabetic child desperately in need of an insulin shot, or allowed the freedom to explore the city. After the vr training was over, the experimenter asked the participants to wait while they put away the vr equipment. Similar to the Greitemeyer experiments, the experimenter proceeded to accidentally knock over some pens while putting the equipment away.
As you can see from Table 3, participants in the flying condition were quicker to help than participants in the helicopter condition, and also picked up more pens. Participants in the helping condition compared to the touring the city condition likewise responded faster and picked up more pens. Rosenberg et al. (2012) theorized that this prosocial behavior could be due to the priming effect of the virtual reality experience of superpowers on the stereotypical ideas we have about superheroes, Superman in particular. People familiar with comic books know that after a superhero is either granted their super powers or discovers them, they have to make a choice about how to use that power. Experiencing the powers of a superhero is likely to activate cognitive associations between what superheroes do, such as having super powers and using them for good. Being able to briefly identify with a superhero might possibly shift a person's self-concept, temporarily, to that of a "person who helps others". The activations of cognitive associations between having superpowers and heroic deeds is consistent with the GLM validated by the experiments of Greitemeyer and Osswald(2011). The content of the Super Flight/Helping experimental condition primed participant's concepts related to super heroes and their prosocial behavior, which in turn increased the accessability of prosocial thoughts and the likelihood of engaging in prosocial behaviors.
Civic Engagement
Civic engagement is an example of a prosocial behavior that may be defined as any civic activity (participating in local government, voting) or community service (volunteering at a shelter, donating to a food bank). Bers (2010) suggests that video games may increase civic engagement, while Yee (2006) found that social and civic motivations are key factors people list for playing Massively Multiplayer Online video games (Williams, Yee, and Caplan, 2008).
A study by Ferguson and Garza (2011) examined measures of player's self-reported civic engagement, the violent content of the "action"
games they played, the level of parental involvement in their playing of the video games, and the level of technical knowledge or expertise possessed by their parents. The study found that the content of action games was not correlated with civic engagement, but that there was a strong interaction
between parental involvement and the exposure to violence. The more familiar parents were with the violent video games their children played, the less severe they rated the violent content and the less harmful they judged the influence of that content on their children to be. Interestingly, the more parents were involved with their children playing video games, the greater the children's involvement in civic engagement tended to be. It should be cautioned, however, that the effect between parental involvement and civic engagement was small, and that parental involvement was the significant motivating factor in children's civic engagement, not neccessarily that they were playing video games.
A study by Ferguson and Garza (2011) examined measures of player's self-reported civic engagement, the violent content of the "action"
games they played, the level of parental involvement in their playing of the video games, and the level of technical knowledge or expertise possessed by their parents. The study found that the content of action games was not correlated with civic engagement, but that there was a strong interaction
between parental involvement and the exposure to violence. The more familiar parents were with the violent video games their children played, the less severe they rated the violent content and the less harmful they judged the influence of that content on their children to be. Interestingly, the more parents were involved with their children playing video games, the greater the children's involvement in civic engagement tended to be. It should be cautioned, however, that the effect between parental involvement and civic engagement was small, and that parental involvement was the significant motivating factor in children's civic engagement, not neccessarily that they were playing video games.
While further research is needed, particularly into the long-term effects of exposure to prosocial video game content, the current literature is optimistic. Studies have shown that exposure to prosocial content seems to strengthen cognitive associations with prosocial behavior, resulting in as much as half to 100% of participants being willing to help, even when the potential negative consequences are severe. Even though civic engagement in the form of political activism has decreased over the years, studies show that youth and adolescent involvement in community based activities has roughly remained the same, and that action video games, along with strong parental involvement, might help increase civic engagement. While video games might have developed a bad reputation for being splashy gore-fests brainwashing our youth into desensitized killing machines, recent research has illuminated the great potential for video games to bring out the best in us; to encourage us to be caring, sharing individuals.